Overview
  1. David Barton Smith, The Power to Heal: Civil Rights, Medicare, and the Struggle to Transform America’s Health Care System (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2016).

    ← Return to text

  2. Emily A. Largent, “Public Health, Racism, and the Lasting Impact of Hospital Segregation,” Public Health Reports 133, no. 6 (2018): 715–20, https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918795891.

    ← Return to text

  3. Anouk Lloren et al., “Measuring Hospital-Specific Disparities by Dual Eligibility and Race to Reduce Health Inequities,” Health Services Research 54, no. February (2019): 243–54, https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13108.

    ← Return to text

  4. Nicholas S. Downing et al., “Association of Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities With Outcomes Among Patients Hospitalized With Acute Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, and Pneumonia: An Analysis of Within- and Between-Hospital Variation,” JAMA Network Open 1, no. 5 (2018): e182044, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.2044.

    ← Return to text

  5. Yue Li et al., “Medicare Advantage Associated With More Racial Disparity Than Traditional Medicare For Hospital Readmissions,” Health Affairs 36, no. 7 (2017): 1328–35, https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.1344.

    ← Return to text

  6. Downing et al., “Association of Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities With Outcomes Among Patients Hospitalized With Acute Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, and Pneumonia: An Analysis of Within- and Between-Hospital Variation.”

    ← Return to text

  7. Maricruz Rivera-hernandez et al., “Racial Disparities in Readmission Rates among Patients Discharged to Skilled Nursing Facilities,” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 67, no. 8 (2019): 1672–79, https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.15960.Racial.

    ← Return to text

  8. Jolyn Taylor et al., “Disparities in Treatment and Survival among Elderly Ovarian Cancer Patients,” Gynecologic Oncology 151, no. 2 (2018): 269–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2018.08.041.

    ← Return to text

  9. Jeffrey H. Silber et al., “Disparities in Breast Cancer Survival by Socioeconomic Status Despite Medicare and Medicaid Insurance,” Milbank Quarterly 96, no. 4 (2018): 706–54, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12355.

    ← Return to text

  10. Ikumi Suzuki et al., “Racial Disparities in Outcome among Head and Neck Cancer Patients in the United States: An Analysis Using SEER-Medicare Linked Database.,” Journal of Clinical Oncology 37, no. 15 (2018): 6051–6051, https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2019.37.15_suppl.6051.

    ← Return to text

  11. Clara Lam et al., “Differences in Cancer Survival among White and Black Cancer Patients by Presence of Diabetes Mellitus: Estimations Based on SEER-Medicare-Linked Data Resource,” Cancer Medicine 7, no. 7 (2018): 3434–44, https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.1554.

    ← Return to text

  12. Sikander Ailawadhi et al., “Racial Disparities in Treatment Patterns and Outcomes among Patients with Multiple Myeloma: A SEER-Medicare Analysis,” Blood Advances 3, no. 20 (2019): 2986–94, https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2019000308.

    ← Return to text

  13. Arline T Geronimus, “The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations.,” Ethn Dis. 2, no. 3 (1992): 207–21.

    ← Return to text

  14. Arline T. Geronimus et al., “‘Weathering’ and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 5 (2006): 826–33, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749.

    ← Return to text

  15. Dinorah Martinez Tyson et al., “Unpacking Hispanic Ethnicity—Cancer Mortality Differentials Among Hispanic Subgroups in the United States, 2004–2014,” Frontiers in Public Health 6, no. August (2018): 1–11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00219.

    ← Return to text

  16. Fatima Rodriguez et al., “Disaggregation of Cause-Specific Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Among Hispanic Subgroups,” JAMA Cardiology 2, no. 3 (2017): 240–47, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2016.4653.

    ← Return to text

Demographics
  1. Robert Grove and Alice Hetzel, Vital Statistics Rates in the United States: 1940-1960 (Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office, 1968); Elizabeth Arias, Brian L. Rostron, and Tejada-Vera Betzaida, “United States Life Tables, 2005,” National Vital Statistics Reports 58, no. 10 (2010); Jiaquan Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007,” National Vital Statistics Reports 58, no. 19 (2010), available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2010/022.pdf.

    ← Return to text

  2. Jennifer Van Hook, Michelle Frisco, and Carlyn Graham, “Signs of the End of the Paradox? Cohort Shifts in Smoking and Obesity and the Hispanic Life Expectancy Advantage,” Sociological Science 7 (2020): 391–414, https://doi.org/10.15195/v7.a16.

    ← Return to text

  3. Michelle L. Frisco, Jennifer Van Hook, and Robert A. Hummer, “Would the Elimination of Obesity and Smoking Reduce U.S. Racial/Ethnic/Nativity Disparities in Total and Healthy Life Expectancy?,” SSM - Population Health 7 (2019): 100374, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100374.

    ← Return to text

  4. Van Hook, Frisco, and Graham, “Signs of the End of the Paradox? Cohort Shifts in Smoking and Obesity and the Hispanic Life Expectancy Advantage.”

    ← Return to text

  5. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Opportunities for the Health Care System (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2020).

    ← Return to text

Education, Poverty, and Wealth
  1. Alexandra Killewald and Brielle Bryan, “Falling Behind: The Role of Inter- and Intragenerational Processes in Widening Racial and Ethnic Wealth Gaps through Early and Middle Adulthood,” Social Forces 97, no. 2 (2018): 705–40.

    ← Return to text

  2. Tyson H. Brown, “Diverging Fortunes: Racial/Ethnic Inequality in Wealth Trajectories in Middle and Late Life,” Race and Social Problems 8, no. 1 (2016): 29–41, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-016-9160-2.

    ← Return to text

  3. Raj Chetty et al., “Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective” (Cambridge, MA, 2018), https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w24441/w24441.pdf.

    ← Return to text

Health Status and Disease Prevalence
  1. Ling Na et al., “Activity Limitation Stages Are Associated With Risk of Hospitalization Among Medicare Beneficiaries,” PM and R 9, no. 5 (2017): 433–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2016.09.008.

    ← Return to text

  2. Jibby E. Kurichi et al., “Predicting 3-Year Mortality and Admission to Acute-Care Hospitals, Skilled Nursing Facilities, and Long-Term Care Facilities in Medicare Beneficiaries,” Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 73 (2017): 248–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2017.08.005.

    ← Return to text

  3. Bjoern Suckow et al., “Hemoglobin A1c Testing and Amputation Rates in Black, Hispanic, and White Medicare Patients,” Annals of Vascular Surgery 36 (2016): 208–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avsg.2016.03.035.

    ← Return to text

Access to Care and Service Utilization
  1. Laura L. Hall et al., “A Map of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Influenza Vaccine Uptake in the Medicare Fee-for-Service Program,” Advances in Therapy 37, no. 5 (2020): 2224–35, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-020-01324-y.

    ← Return to text

COVID-19
  1. Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (Crown Publishing Group, 2010).

    ← Return to text

KFF Headquarters: 185 Berry St., Suite 2000, San Francisco, CA 94107 | Phone 650-854-9400
Washington Offices and Barbara Jordan Conference Center: 1330 G Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005 | Phone 202-347-5270

www.kff.org | Email Alerts: kff.org/email | facebook.com/KFF | twitter.com/kff

The independent source for health policy research, polling, and news, KFF is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California.